The disclosed processes resolve issues that relate to the disposal of fly ash, other byproducts of coal power generation and other toxic and/or hazardous materials. In various embodiments, fly ash or other waste is incorporated into an artificial feldspar material, which is also referred to herein as “artificial feldspar.” The artificial feldspar is then disposed of or used for a variety of different purposes. Examples of other uses for the artificial feldspar include, but are not limited to, use as an aggregate (e.g., in concrete, in asphalt, etc.), as road base, as gravel, as another fill material or the like.
As illustrated by the pie chart of FIG. 1, in 2009, forty-four and nine tenths percent (44.9%) of all electricity generated in the United States came from coal burning power plants. Twenty-three and four tenths percent (23.4%) of electricity in the U.S. during that same year was generated by natural gas fired power plants. Nuclear power plants generated twenty and three tenths percent (20.3%) of electricity in the U.S. in 2009. Other sources of electricity in the U.S. in 2009 and their contributions to the overall U.S. power demand during that year are also shown in FIG. 1.
In recent years in the U.S., coal has been burned at a rate of 1.05 billion tons annually to generate electricity. In addition to generating electricity, a number of byproducts, or waste materials, are formed as coal is burned. These include fly ash, or furnace ash, of which about 72 million tons are generated each year in the U.S., cinder and sludge, as well as carbon dioxide, of which about 1.9 billion tons is produced in the U.S. each year, air pollutants and oxides of silicon, aluminum, iron, calcium, magnesium, titanium, sodium, potassium, arsenic, mercury, sulfur, uranium and thorium.
In addition, coal burning often releases radioactive materials, such as uranium-235, uranium-238 and thorium, and isotopes formed by the decay of radioactive materials, which are also known as “daughters.” These daughters may include materials such as radium, radon, polonium, bismuth, lead and potassium-40, all of which are hazardous materials. Any uranium-238 released as coal is burned may react with neutrons in the air (e.g., from oxygen bombardment, nitrogen nuclei generated by cosmic rays, etc.) to form plutonium-239. Other materials that are present in the waste that is generated by burning coal include mercury (at a current rate of about 109 tons per year), arsenic (at a current rate of about 7,884 tons per year), beryllium (at a current rate of about 1,167 tons per year), cadmium (at a current rate of about 750 tons per year), chromium (at a current rate of about 8,810 tons per year), nickel (at a current rate of about 9,339 tons per year), selenium (at a current rate of about 2,587 tons per year), uranium (at a current rate of about 801 tons per year; of which about 11,400 pounds are uranium-235) and thorium (at a current rate of about 1,971 tons per year). Altogether, toxic materials currently account for an estimated 120 million tons of the waste generated each year by coal burning power plants in the U.S. With about five hundred coal burning power plants currently in the U.S., this averages out to about 240,000 tons of toxic waste per power plant.
Before burning, coal is crushed and washed. The waste from these processes includes mercury, arsenic, beryllium, cadmium, nickel, selenium and acid mine runoff.
When the coal is burned, fly ash and sludge are formed. These byproducts also include mercury, arsenic, beryllium, cadmium, nickel and selenium, along with chromium, titanium, uranium and thorium, as well as toxic gases and a variety of radioactive materials. Although the gaseous waste that is generated when coal is burned is scrubbed to remove toxic components and prevent their release into the atmosphere, scrubbing processes also form toxic materials. As an example, scrubbing of coal with sulfur dioxide creates calcium sulfite (CaSO3) and calcium sulfate (CaSO4), both of which are toxic materials. The National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements (NCRP) has determined that one ton of coal has a radiation of 0.00427 millicuries. At current rates, coal burning in the U.S. releases 4,483,500 millicuries of radiation into the environment each year. Based on current projections, by the year 2040, 11.716 billion tons of coal will be burned each year, resulting in an annual release of 145,230 tons of uranium (of which 5,883 tons will be uranium-235) and 1,039,709 tons of thorium into the environment.
At current energy production rates, it has been estimated that about seventy-two million (72,000,000) tons of fly ash is produced by coal burning power plants in the U.S. each year. Fly ash is typically stored in pits and landfills. The U.S. currently includes three hundred fifty (350) sites that have been approved and designated for permanent disposal of coal waste, including fly ash. Since all coal wastes are deposited in chemically active state, they release toxins over time. As rainwater filters through fly ash, toxic metals are leached from the fly ash into the water, which flows into the ground and ultimately contaminates groundwater and the biosphere. According to U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), a ten (10) acre fly ash landfill may introduce about 0.2 gallon to about ten (10) gallons of toxic metals into groundwater each day.
As demonstrated by the following table, each of the forty-nine continental states of the U.S. has at least one site that has been approved and designated for disposal of coal waste:
TonsRankofTons ofTons ofRank(ToxicToxicWaste inWaste inState(Waste)Tons of WasteMetals)MetalsPondsLandfillsTexas113,454,00018,915576,8106,490,800Pennsylvania211,057,65045,6391,076,7002,536,500Kentucky38,599,40064,8532,298,0003,409,900Indiana48,528,65035,9582,273,4502,820,400Ohio57,836,70026,5942,667,300899,900West Virginia66,190,90054,990896,2003,118,400Florida75,180,787123,02974,0001,335,300Illinois84,411,10093,264747,8008,000North Carolina94,008,200103,2431,344,200607,200New Mexico103,799,30030870517,10089,300Georgia113,508,91074,1921,541,900825,610Tennessee123,505,220162,176632,100732,600Alabama133,200,700113,1751,810,400903,500North Dakota143,001,10083,419334,8001,736,400New York152,838,410291,000—699,990Arizona162,775,030191,795387,9001,148,730Utah172,366,700172,027131,0001,475,200Missouri182,332,150142,469779,150221,700Virginia192,329,200181,877448,200943,000Michigan202,129,700132,524669,200769,500Wyoming212,106,300231,306448,100950,400South Carolina222,091,490152,315301,050377,100Maryland231,932,740201,59428,100420,300Louisiana241,629,30031838191,300691,100Colorado251,607,970211,4425,700655,080Minnesota261,544,110281,022813,910420,400Wisconsin271,480,900221,40611,000267,700Oklahoma281,462,300271,18016,560123,900Washington291,405,22039279—424,220Kansas301,386,400251,253194,300539,200Mississippi311,308,100261,19699,100707,000Iowa321,228,100241,284201,700151,600Montana331,018,90037364963,600—Maine34892,1104620—858,700Arkansas35784,5673278459,700284,640Nevada36771,60036391—477,200New Jersey37642,30035488——Nebraska38595,00033630—166,500Massachusetts39384,89034581——Delaware40284,10038316—149,000New Hampshire41177,65040210—2,600Connecticut42172,73041160——Oregon4399,90042114—17,500South Dakota4497,3004382000,0000,080,100Hawaii4551,5004446——California4650,4004538——Idaho4726,800——00
The implementation of so-called coal gasification—converting coal into gas before combustion—reduces the volume of produced waste, but still poses very serious contamination issues and environmental risks. The table that follows provides a projection of the amounts of coal waste that result from coal gasification processes:
Numberof NewProjected Tons StatePlantsof Coal WasteRankTexas73,653,4121South Dakota2952,6302Nevada3888,2723Montana3848,2784Florida2736,6495South Carolina2731,1106Michigan5686,8797Illinois3632,5218Missouri4515,7099Wisconsin3512,63210Georgia2507,95211Wyoming4449,02212Pennsylvania5430,27513Kentucky3410,54814New Mexico1366,93715Ohio1325,86416Arkansas2316,69117Oklahoma2316,69117Iowa2312,75519Utah3296,25720Louisiana2294,41421North Carolina1251,09922West Virginia2247,77523Nebraska2199,06324Virginia1173,47225Colorado1169,65626North Dakota193,79727Arizona190,48328
In January 2009, Sue Sturgis of the Institute of Southern Studies compiled a list of the top one hundred (100) U.S. coal burning power plants, in terms of coal waste stored in surface impoundments:
2006 SurfaceImpoundmentRankFacilityCorporate OwnerCityStateReleases (lbs.)1Stanton Energy CenterOrlando UtilitiesOrlandoFL8,423,056Commission2Sherburne CountyXcel EnergyBeckerMN4,721,862Generating Plant3Coal Creek StationGreat River EnergyUnderwoodND4,372,7094Scherer Steam Electric Georgia Power/JulietteGA4,114,502PlantSouthern Company5Detroit EdisonDTE EnergyMonroeMI4,110,859Monroe Power Plant6Gibson GeneratingDuke EnergyOwensvilleIN3,030,524Station7Gorgas Steam PlantAlabama Power/ParrishAL2,888,290Southern Company8Cholla Power PlantArizona PublicJoseph CityAZ2,863,427Service Company9Wansley Steam PlantGeorgia Power/RoopvilleGA2,673,672Southern Company10Ghent GeneratingE.ON USGhentKY2,664,501Station11J.M. Stuart StationDayton Power &ManchesterOH2,456,637Light, Duke, AEP12Harllee BranchGeorgia Power/Milledgeville GA2,433,945Generating PlantSouthern Company13Barry Steam PlantAlabama Power/BucksAL2,350,349Southern Company14Gaston Steam PlantAlabama Power/WilsonvilleAL2,306,006Southern Company15Miller Steam PlantAlabama Power/QuintonAL2,160,349Southern Company16La Cygne GeneratingGreat Plains EnergyLacygneKS2,127,000Station17Gallatin Fossil PlantTennessee ValleyGallatinTN2,093,068Authority18Boswell EnergyMinnesota PowerCohassetMN2,009,628Center19Leland Olds StationBasin Electric PowerStantonND1,937,821Cooperative20Widows Creek FossilTennessee ValleyStevensonAL1,864,177PlantAuthority21Paradise Fossil PlantTennessee ValleyDrakesboroKY1,765,148Authority22Labadie Power StationAmerenUELabadieMO1,740,88223Kingston Fossil PlantTennessee ValleyHarrimanTN1,738,437Authority24Cardinal PlantAmerican ElectricBrilliantOH1,707,225Power25Bowen Steam PlantGeorgia Power/Cartersville GA1,684,118Southern Company26Pearl StationSoyland PowerPearlIL1,661,744Cooperative27New Madrid PowerAssociated ElectricMarstonMO1,514,440PlantCooperative28Kammer and MitchellAmerican ElectricMoundsvilleWV1,372,687PlantsPower29Kyger Creek StationOhio Valley ElectricCheshireOH1,356,475Corp.30Greene County SteamAlabama Power/ForklandAL1,343,973PlantSouthern Company31Baldwin EnergyDynegyBaldwinIL1,324,467Station32Rush Island PowerAmerenUEFestusMO1,307,769Station33Karn and WeadockConsumers EnergyEssexvilleMI1,171,382Generating Plants34Cayuga GeneratingDuke EnergyCayugaIL1,154,623Station35Council Bluffs EnergyMidAmerican EnergyCouncilIA1,092,320CenterBluffs36Chesterfield PowerDominionChesterVA1,088,260Station37Milton R. YoungMinnkota PowerCenterND1,036,290StationCooperative38Wabash RiverDuke EnergyW. TerreIN951,610Generating StationHaute39A. B. BrownVectrenMountIL944,944Generating StationVernon40Big Sandy PlantAmerican ElectricLouisaKY915,079Power41Amos PlantAmerican ElectricWinfieldWV864,024Power42Big Cajun IINRG EnergyNew RoadsLA860,64043Hammond SteamGeorgia Power/RomeGA849,068Generating StationSouthern Company44Tanners Creek PlantAmerican ElectricLawrenceburgIN819,840Power45Muskingum RiverAmerican ElectricBeverlyOH791,757PlantPower46Mayo GeneratingProgress EnergyRoxboroNC786,128Plant47Killen GeneratingDayton Power &ManchesterOH715,435StationLight, Duke Energy48Roxboro Steam PlantProgress EnergySemoraNC698,29049Trimble CountyE.ON USBedfordKY637,434Generating Station50E.W. BrownE.ON USHarrodsburgKY637,230Generating Station51George Neal StationMidAmerican EnergySergeantIA612,005NorthBluff52Clifty Creek StationOhio Valley ElectricMadisonIN590,808Corp.53Welsh Power PlantAmerican ElectricPittsburgTX562,064Power54Coleto Creek PowerInternational PowerFanninTX550,623Station55L. V. Sutton ElectricProgress EnergyWilmingtonNC548,210Plant56Laramie River Station Basin Electric Power WheatlandWY541,970Cooperative57Lansing SmithGulf Power/SouthportFL520,282Generating PlantSouthern Company58Naughton Power PlantPacifiCorp/KemmererWY517,966MidAmerican Energy59Meramec Power PlantAmerenUESaint LouisMO481,31860Shawnee Fossil PlantTennessee ValleyWestKY467,616AuthorityPaducah61Brayton Point Station DominionSomersetMA464,25462Duck Creek StationAmerenCantonIL462,27263Twin Oaks PowerOptimEnergyBremondTX449,002Station64Conesville PowerAmerican ElectricConesvilleOH447,846PlantPower65G.G. Allen SteamDuke EnergyBelmontNC439,208Plant66Montrose StationGreat Plains Energy ClintonMO422,10067Allen Fossil PlantTennessee ValleyMemphisTN416,705Authority68Cliffside PlantDuke EnergyMooresboroNC413,45969Asheville PlantProgress EnergyArdenNC411,79370Meredosia PowerAmerenMeredosiaIL398,106Station71Louisa GeneratingMidAmerican EnergyMuscatineIA382,063Station72Asbury GeneratingEmpire DistrictAsburyMO381,186StationElectric Co.73H. W. Pirkey PowerAmerican ElectricHallsvilleTX380,111PlantPower74Yates SteamGeorgia Pacific/NewnanGA376,610Generating PlantSouthern Company75Joppa Steam PlantAmerenJoppaIL366,67576Havana Power StationAmerenHavanaIL360,77277Apache GeneratingArizona ElectricCochiseAZ360,465StationPower Cooperative78Canadys StationSCE&G/SCANACanadysSC357,89779Lee Steam PlantProgress EnergyGoldsboroNC356,07880Kincaid GeneratingDominionKincaidIL355,108Plant81Cape Fear Steam PlantProgress EnergyMoncureNC334,07682Intermountain PowerIntermountain PowerDeltaUT333,589StationService Corp.83Frank RattsHoosier EnergyPetersburgIN330,014Generating Station84McDonough/Georgia Power/SmyrnaGA318,051Atkinson Steam PlantSouthern Company85Petersburg GeneratingAESPetersburgIN309,961Station86Dolet Hills PowerClecoMansfieldLA291,208Station87Rockport PlantAmerican ElectricRockportIN281,995Power88Buck Steam StationDuke EnergySpencerNC279,19089Hugo PlantWestern FarmersHugoOK275,203Electric Cooperative90Wood River StationDynegyAltonIL267,06691Gallagher Generating Duke ElectricNew AlbanyIN260,183Station92Oklaunion PowerAmerican ElectricVernonTX254,652StationPower93Gadsden Steam PlantAlabama Power/GadsdenAL249,740Southern Company94Iatan GeneratingGreat Plains Energy WestonMO240,245Station95Sioux Power PlantAmerenUEWest AltonMO226,19396Flint Creek PowerAmerican ElectricGentryAR221,456PlantPower97Riverton Power PlantEmpire DistrictRivertonKS212,688Electric Company98Spurlock PowerEast Kentucky PowerMaysvilleKY196,954StationCooperative99Jeffrey Energy CenterWestar EnergySaint Marys KS190,417100W.S. Lee SteamDuke EnergyPelzerSC190,030StationTotal114,790,602
The EPA has found that, since 2004, ninety percent (90%) of coal burning power plants in the U.S. violate the Clean Water Act. Many violations are accidental, but they all pose significant health risks and risks to the environment, particularly since combustion reduces the volume of coal by eighty-five percent (85%), which results in a significant increase in the concentration of all of the byproducts of coal burning processes. Some of the hazards of coal waste were apparent after Oct. 11, 2000, when an estimated three hundred six million (306,000,000) gallons of coal mining sludge burst through the bottom of a Massey Energy coal slurry impoundment in Martin County, Ky., filling Wolf Creek and Coldwater Fork, two tributaries of the Tug River. That disaster killed all aquatic life in the affected tributaries, leaving sludge over five feet thick along parts of their banks and adjacent land and poisoning the water supply for about 27,000 people. The Martin County coal fly ash slurry spill was thirty (30) times as big as the Exxon Valdez oil spill. Other fly ash spills, including the Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA) Kingston Fossil Plant coal fly ash slurry spill on Dec. 22, 2008, have had similarly disastrous effects on the environment.
There are a number of additional sites where similar disasters could happen. The EPA has released a list of “high hazard” dumps for coal waste (including fly ash), which includes the forty-four (44) sites listed below:
OwnerSiteFacilityLocationE.ON-owned KentuckyGhent GeneratingAsh Pond Basin 1Ghent, KYUtilities CompanyStationE.ON-owned KentuckyGhent GeneratingAsh Pond Basin 2Ghent, KYUtilities CompanyStationE.ON-owned LouisvilleCane Run StationAsh PondLouisville, KYGas & Electric CoPPL Montana LLCColstrip Steam Plant Units 1 & 2 StageColstrip, MTEvaporation Ponds (STEP)Progress EnergyAsheville Plant1982 PondArden, NCCarolinas IncProgress EnergyAsheville Plant1964 PondArden, NCCarolinas IncAllegheny EnergyPleasants Power StationMcElroy' s Run EmbankmentWillow Island,WVAmerican ElectricBig Sandy PlantFly AshLouisa, KYPowerAmerican ElectricCardinal PlantFly Ash Reservoir 2Brilliant, OHPowerAmerican ElectricGavin PlantFly Ash PondCheshire, OHPowerAmerican ElectricGavin PlantBottom Ash PondCheshire, OHPowerAmerican ElectricAmos PlantFly Ash PondSt. Albans, WVPowerAmerican ElectricMitchell PlantFly Ash PondMoundsville,PowerWVAmerican ElectricMuskingum River PlantUnit 5 Bottom Ash PondWaterford, OHPower(Lower Fly Ash Pond)American ElectricMuskingum River PlantUpper Fly Ash PondWaterford, OHPowerAmerican ElectricMuskingum River PlantMiddle Fly Ash PondWaterford, OHPowerAmerican ElectricPhilip Sporn PowerFly Ash PondNew Haven, WVPowerPlantAmerican ElectricTanners Creek PlantFly Ash PondLawrenceburg,PowerINArizona Electric Power Apache GeneratingAsh Pond 4Cochise, AZCooperativeStationArizona Electric Power Apache GeneratingAsh Pond 1Cochise, AZCooperativeStationArizona Electric Power Apache GeneratingAsh Pond 3Cochise, AZCooperativeStationArizona Electric Power Apache GeneratingScrubber Pond 2Cochise, AZCooperativeStationArizona Electric Power Apache GeneratingScrubber Pond 1Cochise, AZCooperativeStationArizona Electric Power Apache GeneratingEvaporation 1Cochise, AZCooperativeStationArizona Electric Power Apache GeneratingAsh Pond 2Cochise, AZCooperativeStationArizona Public Service Cholla GeneratingBottom Ash PondJoseph City, AZCompanyStationArizona Public Service Cholla GeneratingFly Ash PondJoseph City, AZCompanyStationDuke EnergyG.G. Allen SteamPlant Active Ash PondBelmont, NCDuke EnergyBelews Creek SteamActive Ash PondWalnut Cove,StationNCDuke EnergyBuck Steam StationNew Primary PondSpencer, NCDuke EnergyBuck Steam StationSecondary PondSpencer, NCDuke EnergyBuck Steam StationPrimary PondSpencer, NCDuke EnergyDan River SteamSecondary PondEden, NCStationDuke EnergyDan River SteamPrimary PondEden, NCStationDuke EnergyMarshall Steam Station Active Ash PondTerrell, NCDuke EnergyRiverbend SteamSecondary PondMount Holly,StationNCDuke EnergyRiverbend SteamPrimary PondMount Holly,StationNCDynegy MidwestHavana Power StationEast Ash PondHavana, ILGenerationDynegy MidwestWood River StationEast Ash Pond (2 cells)Alton, ILGenerationFirstEnergyBruce Mansfield PowerLittle Blue Run DamShippingport, PAStationSouthern Company-Branch Generating PlantEMilledgeville,owned Georgia PowerGAE.ON-owned KentuckyE.W. Brown GeneratingAuxiliary PondHarrodsburg, KYUtilities CompanyStationE.ON-owned KentuckyE.W. Brown GeneratingAsh PondHarrodsburg, KYUtilities CompanyStationE.ON-owned KentuckyGhent GeneratingGypsum Stacking FacilityGhent, KYUtilities CompanyStation
In the U.S., coal waste dumps contain billions of gallons of fly ash and other toxic coal waste. All of these sites are threats to water supplies, human health and the environment.